Abraham Lincoln @ 200 Years: Looking for the man behind the myths

At a time when memories of the inauguration of President Barack Obama in Washington D.C. remain fresh in the minds of many people, the mental image of a former U.S. president stands out above all others___ Abraham Lincoln, America’s 16th president. This month marks the commemoration of Abraham Lincoln’s 200th birthday with special events and programs taking place all across America.

For people here in Europe who have had the opportunity to learn about American history the name Abraham Lincoln is well known. People generally associate President Lincoln with the freeing of black slaves in the United States of America through the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. Others remember that he was successful in helping to save the union of northern and southern states at the end of the American Civil War (1861-1865). Like all great heroes and important figures in world history the knowledge and visions many of us have about Abraham Lincoln are not exactly accurate.

Thanks to the work of some outstanding people with a special interest and deep knowledge of American history the U.S.A. is well prepared this year to share with the world the legacy of this great American figure on his 200th birthday. Among the many historians who have produced recent work on the life of Lincoln, the name of one of my favorite US historians stands out___ Dr. Henry Louis Gates Jr. of the W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research (Harvard University).

In the current issue of TIME magazine (TIME.com) there is a special feature on Dr. Henry Louis Gates Jr. where readers had the opportunity to ask a question of this prominent historian. On Monday this week I was delighted to learn that out of 77 questions posed to Dr. Gates from people around the globe, my question about the complex relationship Abraham Lincoln had with prominent American blacks and black slaves was one of the ten questions selected by the editors for the interview. To be honest I am overjoyed that both Gilbert Cruz of TIME.com and Dr. Gates decided to field my question. Here is the exact text of the question I submitted to TIME.com editors and Dr. Henry Louis Gates Jr.:

TIME.com - 10 Questions - Ask Henry Louis Gates Jr.

My question submitted to TIME.com on January 28, 2009

Dear Dr. Gates,

First I would like to say that I am big fan of your work in American history and that I closely follow your writings and documentary/educational multi-media productions online from Germany. I also am a regular visitor to your new online publication TheRoot.com

My Question:
In your recent op-ed ‘A Pragmatic Precedent’ at The New York Times (co-authored with John Stauffer) you explain the complex feelings and views President Abraham Lincoln held toward black people. Could you please expand on that topic in your upcoming interview with TIME.com.
Why did Lincoln view the great abolitionist Frederick Douglas as an (almost) intellectual equal but at the same time fail to understand that many African Americans in the mid-19th century had the same potential for achievement and success if only given education and opportunity to show what they could do? Surely President Lincoln was aware of other great black intellectuals that had emerged on the public scene in Europe from the 17th century up to his time (i.e. Professor Anton Wilhelm Amo in Germany et al.). Thank you for your consideration of this question.
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Dr. Henry Louis Gates Jr. responds to questions posed by TIME Magazine readers in the article and online video interview below:

TIME.com: 10 Questions for Henry Louis Gates Jr.
Photo Essay: Henry Louis Gates Jr.: A Life in Letters - 10 Questions - TIME
TIME.com video: 10 Questions Interview with Henry Louis Gates Jr.
http://link.brightcove.com/services/link/bcpid1670048590/bclid1342094282/bctid10280451001
Ask Henry Louis Gates Jr.: 10 Questions - TIME.com (list of 77 questions submitted)
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So you see, it’s all in how you ask the question when you want to get the attention of a great US historian AND get a ‘Hat Tip’ from TIME.com to boot. Of course my introduction with high praise for Gates’ previous work on historical subjects didn’t hurt my chances of receiving a reply to my question.

Here are excerpts from a New York Times op-ed written by Henry Louis Gates Jr. and John Stauffer* just two days before the inauguration of the 44th US president:

January 19, 2009
Op-Ed Contributors
A Pragmatic Precedent
By HENRY LOUIS GATES Jr. and JOHN STAUFFER

UNTIL a martyred John F. Kennedy replaced him, Abraham Lincoln was one of the two white men whose image most frequently graced even the most modest black home, second in popularity only to Jesus. Perhaps none of his heirs in the Oval Office has been as directly compared to Lincoln as will Barack Obama, in part because Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation began freeing the slaves descended from the continent on which Mr. Obama’s father was born, and in part because of Mr. Obama’s own fascination with Lincoln himself.

Much has been written about what Mr. Obama thinks about Lincoln; but not much has been said about what Lincoln would think of Barack Hussein Obama. If his marble statue at the Lincoln Memorial could become flesh and speak, like Galatea, what would the man who is remembered for freeing the slaves say about his first black successor?

It is difficult to say for sure, of course, but one thing we can be fairly certain about is that Lincoln would have been, um, surprised. Lincoln was thoroughly a man of his times, and while he staunchly opposed slavery — on moral grounds and because it made competition in the marketplace unfair for poor white men — for most of his life he harbored fixed and unfortunate ideas about race.

Lincoln had a very complex relationship with blacks. Abolition was a fundamental part of Lincoln’s moral compass, but equality was not. While he was an early, consistent and formidable foe of slavery, Lincoln had much more ambivalent feelings about blacks themselves, especially about whether they were, or could ever be, truly equal with whites.

For example, on Aug. 14, 1862, he invited five black men to the White House to convince them to become the founders of a new nation in Panama consisting of those slaves he was about to free. A month before emancipation became law, he proposed a constitutional amendment guaranteeing financing for blacks who wished to emigrate to Liberia or Haiti.

Degrading words, deplored by most white abolitionists, like “Sambo” and “Cuffee,” found their way into Lincoln’s descriptions of blacks; he even used “nigger” several times in speeches. He also liked to tell “darkie” jokes and had a penchant for black-faced minstrel shows. The Lincoln of pre-White House days was a long way from the Great Emancipator; “recovering racist” would be closer to the truth.

…The truth is that successful blacks were almost total strangers to Lincoln, born as he was on the frontier and raised in a state settled by white Southerners. From this perspective, then, Lincoln most probably would have been shocked, perhaps horrified, by Mr. Obama’s election. Like the majority of Northern whites, Lincoln had a vision of America that was largely a white one.

End excerpts_____ Read the complete article ‘A Pragmatic Precedent’ at the New York Times.

Note*: John Stauffer is one of the world’s leading scholars of antislavery, protest movements, and interracial relations. He is currently the Chair of the History of American Civilization Program and Professor of English and African American Studies at Harvard University. Visit his personal website at johnstaufferbooks.com.


PBS Lincoln Bicentennial TV program special ‘Looking for Lincoln’
Scheduled broadcast: February 11, 2009 @ 21:00 EST in the U.S. and Canada

A very interesting and educational TV program will be airing in the U.S. during the bicentennial celebration of Abraham Lincoln’s birthday. The documentary film ‘Looking for Lincoln’ will be showing on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). ‘Looking for Lincoln’ was written and is presented by Dr. Henry Louis Gates Jr. (see profile above). Dr. Gates had help from other outstanding US historians and Lincoln scholars, US political figures, editors and writers. Here is how PBS describes some of the key contributors to ‘Looking for Lincoln’:

In the film, Gates shows how the Lincoln legend grew out of controversy, greed, love, clashing political perspectives, power struggles, and considerable disagreement over how our 16th president should be remembered. His quest to piece together Lincoln’s complex life takes him from Illinois to Gettysburg to Washington, D.C., and face-to-face with people who live with Lincoln every day – relic hunters, re-enactors, and others for whom the study of Lincoln is a passion.

Among those weighing in: Pulitzer Prize winners Doris Kearns Goodwin and Tony Kushner; presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush; and Lincoln scholars including Harold Holzer, vice chair of the Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission; Harvard University’s president Drew Faust and history professor David Hebert Donald; Yale University history professor David Blight; and Allen Guelzo of Gettysburg College. Former Ebony magazine editor Lerone Bennett challenges Lincoln’s record on race; writer Joshua Shenk talks about Lincoln’s depression; and New Yorker staff writer Adam Gopnik illuminates how Lincoln’s words changed the course of history.

So don’t miss it! ‘Looking for Lincoln’ will be airing at 8:00 PM EST starting on Wednesday, February 11, 2009 on your local PBS channel (check local listings). And for the rest of us living outside of the United States (foreigners, American ex-pats, and aliens) the 2-hour program is available online indefinitely at the Looking for Lincoln website at PBS (see PBS links listed below).
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Note**: The Land of Lincoln (the State of Illinois) and President Abraham Lincoln’s legacy figure prominently in the history of my own family. Illinois was the American frontier (Illinois country) where one of my ancestors settled in the late 18th century as a free man. He was a former black slave who won his hard-fought freedom shortly after the end of the American Revolutionary War against the British. He arrived in this beautiful, unspoiled frontier land in the year 1790 and settled not far from the Mississippi River. According to family and official records he built a home, married and founded a family, raised horses and cows and did a bit of farming on his small plot of land.

This all took place nineteen years before Abraham Lincoln was born at Knob Creek Farm (Kentucky) and thirteen years before President Thomas Jefferson launched the Lewis & Clark Expedition (1803-1806) to explore the vast land mass west of the Mississippi River to the Pacific coast (incl. the Louisiana Purchase). Imagine that. This is perhaps a great story that deserves much more attention___ someday in the not so distant future.


Related articles and other resources on Abraham Lincoln

Lincoln Bicentennial Commission (1809-2009) - Live the Legacy
(U.S. Government official website)

The New York Times
Op-Ed Contributors - A Pragmatic Precedent by Henry Louis Gates Jr. and John Stauffer, 01/18/09

The Huffington Post
John Stauffer: What Obama Can Learn from Lincoln's Inaugural

PBS (Public Broadcasting Service)
Looking for Lincoln PBS
About the documentary ‘Looking for Lincoln’
Looking for Lincoln (press release November 20, 2008)
African American Lives 2 (press release July 2007)

The New York Times
Television Review - 'Looking for Lincoln' - Henry Louis Gates Jr. Examines a Hero and Is Surprised to Find a 19th-Century Man

The Los Angeles Times – review of the PBS special ‘Looking for Lincoln’
In search of the flesh-and-blood Abraham Lincoln - Los Angeles Times


Companion books to the PBS broadcast 'Looking for Lincoln'
Amazon.com: Looking for Lincoln: The Making of an American Icon: Philip B. Kunhardt III, Peter W. Kunhardt, Peter W. Kunhardt Jr.

The Christian Science Monitor (CSM)
Looking for Lincoln book review by Alfredo Sosa, Dec 8, 2008

Princeton University Press
Gates, H.L., Jr. and Yacovone, D., eds.: Lincoln on Race and Slavery. March 2009
Amazon.com
Giants: The Parallel Lives of Frederick Douglass and Abraham Lincoln by John Stauffer
John Stuaffer’s personal website (johnstaufferbooks.com)


TheRoot.com
Finding Lincoln Smart and Funny
Note: formerly titled ‘The Man Who Knows Lincoln’

Colbert Nation with host Stephen Colbert (Comedy Central)
Henry Louis Gates, Jr., February 3rd, on ColbertNation.com
US comedian Stephan Colbert interviews Henry Louis Gates Jr. about President Abraham Lincoln and the new book “Lincoln on Race and Slavery”


Technorati tags:Abraham Lincoln Lincoln American History history civil war American presidents United States history African American history black history Black History Month global voices

CBS Interview with the Obamas On Their Personal Transition to the White House

The CBS News '60 Minutes' interview exclusive with the US President-elect Barack Obama and US First Lady Michelle Obama after the elections. November 16, 2008



A special treat for my 'overseas friends and readers' who may not be aware of this delightful interview conducted by one of America's favorite TV news magazines: CBS News '60 Minutes'.

More info about the program: 'The Obama's On Their Personal Transition'.

Technorati tags:2008 US Elections US Elections politics Barack Obama Obama America USA history American history African American history African-American history global voices

The Obama Election Victory as Viewed from Germany: 'Mr. President, Wir Sind Überglucklich!'

Update November 17
Added new links to German news articles as well as links to the online video files for the CNN program 'Fareed Zakaria GPS - Obama: The Past as Prologue'.
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How do you write about something as monumental as the election of the first African American president of the United States of America? As the noted author and biographer Robert Caro said during a roundtable discussion with Fareed Zakaria, “This is an epic moment in American history”. Ref: Fareed Zakaria GPS program Sunday November 9th ‘Obama: The Past as Prologue’.

Fareed Zakaria GPS – US Historians on Barack Obama – program video Part 1
http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/bestoftv/2008/11/10/fz.obama.pt1.cnn?iref=videosearch

Fareed Zakaria GPS – US Historians on Barack Obama – program video Part 2
http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/bestoftv/2008/11/10/fz.obama.pt2.cnn?iref=videosearch

It has taken the better part of a week to begin recovery from my overwhelming joy over this great political victory and I am not alone. Several days after the announcement to the world that Barack Obama had won the 2008 US presidential election, people here in Germany are still very excited and überglucklich (overjoyed, ecstatic) about his victory.

It makes one think that by electing a new president for our own country we the people of the United States may have also elected the ‘President of the World’ or better stated a ‘President for the World.’ Millions of people are so relieved and excited that American voters have made the right choice. Their emotions and feelings of good will toward America are genuine as far as I can determine. This is what real political capital and international goodwill is really all about and ‘We the People of the United States of America’ dare not waste it. We can build a better nation and help to build a better world upon this change in leadership. People all over the world are counting on us to work with them in a new spirit of cooperation, trust and mutual respect___ so that we may build upon this new foundation in political and world history.

Like many other blog authors and online journalists I thought I would share my personal experiences regarding this election over the past weeks and days with my readers___ for the historical record mind you because we all made history together. This is what I experienced here in Germany:

Election Day Minus 1 and Counting

I must admit that even before Election Day (November 4th) arrived I had been having uncontrollable fits of sobbing and fighting back tears as I realized the historical significance of what was about to happen___ that Barack Obama and Joe Biden had a better-than-even chance of winning this historic US election. Fortunately this was occurring while I was alone in my office or somewhere else in private where I could quickly wipe away the tears. I couldn’t believe that so much emotion and anticipation over these elections had welled-up inside of me that I could accidentally breakdown before my friends and colleagues or worse yet breakdown in public. Scared me to death; thought that I was going mad.

Now that Election Day has come and gone and the American people have chosen in such overwhelming numbers the next President of the United States of America, I am feeling much better thank you. The tears and sobs have subsided (but not entirely). I thought that I may be one of only a few people suffering with this strange pre-election day illness but learned later that this affliction has been affecting people all over the world. Colin Powell has been crying together with his whole family, Jesse Jackson had tears running down his face while standing in a park in Chicago; here in my neighborhood people from Europe and the Middle East and Africa have come up to me full of jubilation with congratulations and best wishes to the people of America. I bet you that more than half have admitted they either broke down in tears or had to fight tears back upon learning of Obama’s great victory. Old and young people, black and white people, people from various nations and ethnic backgrounds, people who lived through terrible wars and extremely difficult circumstances which affected their lives dramatically were shedding tears of joy over the election of the first African American U.S. president. Imagine that.

It shouldn’t be surprising because for months the buzz on the streets in Germany has been about the 2008 US elections. As Election Day neared this ‘buzz’ intensified like something many of us have never witnessed. German TV networks and press deployed their best news teams all over America and in Washington D.C. in anticipation of a historical event that would shake the world: the election of the first ‘black’ President of the United States. On election night and the days following the German news media coverage was simply massive. If you have any doubts about what I am saying (writing) please have a look at the small sample of news coverage online from Germany and Europe that I have listed at the end of this post.

Election Day: November 4, 2008

On the eve of the elections I couldn’t do anything of real consequence due to a heightened sense of nervousness and fear that something would go wrong. I had spoken with several friends and acquaintances who were supporters of Obama (few of whom who could actually vote in this election) and we had reassured one another that everything was going to be O.K.; that Obama would win the US election hands down. Expert political analysis and polls available online were pointing to a solid Democratic Party victory but like many people back in the US and in other parts of the world we did not trust the information we were seeing on TV and reading online and in the newspapers. We did not fully trust our instincts and powers of reason. Some unforeseen event or person was going to spoil our hopes and dreams, dash our heartfelt wishes and prayers for a victory in these elections against the wall.

Toward evening I received something wholly unexpected. It was a letter from my lovely daughter who lives and works in New York City. She just wanted to make contact with her ‘old Dad’ and inform me about what was going on in her busy life and to remind me to follow the elections and to cheer Barack Obama on to victory. Anytime a parent hears from their child who is separated by miles and miles of ocean it is something special. In this case it was more than special, it was ‘a sign’ that something really big and beautiful was about to happen in our lives. You see communications between my daughter and I had unfortunately fallen silent over the years__ for far too many years. Our communication with one another was being re-established on the eve of one of the greatest historical events that we would ever witness in our lifetimes. At that point I knew that everything was going to be alright not only for Senator Obama and all of his millions of avid fans and supporters but also for Dad and his beloved daughter Dalia. I went to bed that evening assured of victory long before the polls closed and the counting of ballots had begun back in America. I knew that he would win and I knew that he was going to win BIG!

So I slept relatively well on election night having mailed my absentee ballot to the United States three weeks ahead of time. No long lines at the polls, no 5 hour+ waiting periods, no problems with names not being on registration lists, no officials telling you that you cannot vote because of your skin color or ethnicity, no growling pit bulls with lipstick and attack dogs and police beating on you with batons and knocking you down with water canons, none of that historical BS. Vote early; it is worth it, I’m telling you.

Election Day + 1: November 5, 2008
The morning news that swept the world’s breadth away

I woke up to good news on Wednesday morning. I was greeted at breakfast with fresh coffee (a good German roast), a selection of breads, German wurst and cheeses, and the news that Barack Obama had won the election. Of course the counting of ballots and reporting was not finished in all U.S. states due to the time difference between the US and Europe, but Senator Barack Obama and Senator Joe Biden had assembled enough electoral votes to declare a resounding victory.

After breakfast I received an early morning phone call from a Congolese friend who has lived in Germany for many years. She was just as ecstatic over this victory as the people dancing in the streets all across America and the world, at a time when her own country, the Democratic Republic of Congo, is suffering from a never-ending war and a humanitarian crisis that has cost the lives of more than 5 million people. It was touching to share her excitement and joy and after a brief discussion about the outcome of the elections she said the following (in German), “This was the will of God what has happened in America today. You are a blessed people and the future of Africa and the world depends on what you do.” I knew after that that this was going to be a very long day.

One of the first people that I met that morning was my good friend Reza. Reza is from Iran and worked for over 20 years in the government administration of the late Shah of Iran. He has been living in exile together with his family in Germany for about 25 years. He fled to Germany after his release from prison in Tehran a few years after the beginning of the Iranian Revolution. Reza and I love to discuss and debate politics and history with our small circle of friends in his Kiosk (small shop). Our little group came together by mere chance and is made up of ‘old guys’ from at least 5 nations. Our old German friend and the Iranian guys have experienced terrible war and destruction in their own countries___ dating back to WWII and moving forward to the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980’s. We are good at world history let me tell you; we’re experts. Just ask us.

Reza has been an avid fan of Barack Obama ever since the young senator from Illinois began to gain news media attention here in Europe. All throughout the grueling 2008 US election campaign with its ups-and-downs and unrelenting bitterness, the endless waiting and uncertainty about who would emerge as the presidential candidate for the Democrats and the Republicans, my friend Reza was unshakable in his confidence of a victory for Barack Obama in November. He just knew who was going to win the election, no question in his mind.

Note: Reza likes to refer to President-elect Obama by his middle name, Hussein. He always does that with a big mischievous grin on his face. His favorite English word for the past weeks has been CHANGE. “We need change!”

It was imperative that Reza be the first friend that I greet on the morning after election night. He was waiting for me patiently while sweeping autumn leaves before his little kiosk. As I approached he displayed the widest smile that you have ever seen. We hugged one another tightly with great joy and tears in our eyes and hearty claps of congratulations on each other’s shoulder; we practically danced in the street with overwhelming happiness. Then we calmed down and discussed the outcome of the elections and what it may mean for improved relations between the U.S.A. and Iran and countries throughout the Middle East. We talked about what an Obama victory could mean for the whole world. Discussions with Reza are always interesting and he has taught me a great deal about the history and culture of his country. Reza insisted that we drink a glass or two of champagne as a toast to the victorious new president-elect. I suggested that we drink tea instead (due to his religion Islam) but he was having none of that. Champagne it is for Reza and me!

Election Day +1: From the Middle East to Africa
A stroll across the road to meet with my close friends from West Africa

I have written before (see the introduction to my last post dated September 22nd) about my close relationship with a number of young Africans who live in my city. My favorites are three young businessmen from Togo: Justin, Vincent, and Sassou. There business (a barber shop, one of the most successful salons in the city) is located just up the street from Reza’s kiosk, so it was logical that this was to be my next stop.

They were waiting on the ‘old man’ as I expected. Again there were plenty of hugs and slaps of congratulations on shoulders and backs and exclamations of joy over the great victory of Barack Obama all around. The look on their faces of happiness, satisfaction and relief that the election was finally over is indescribable. These young men were the epitome of what was happening that day not only in the African Diaspora in Europe but all across the African continent. I didn’t need to see the video footage on CNN and BBC World from Obama’s ancestral homeland Kenya and capitals across Africa; I was witnessing it live here in Germany. Every African that I saw that day, everyone that I knew from Africa that I met on that day, was walking tall with pride and rejoicing over this great event. I left my three friends after a half hour or so of celebration and discussion. Like everyday at work they had the wall-mounted flat screen TV set tuned to the news, CNN and TV5 (France) and N-TV (Germany). These guys are not just Obama fans because he is black or of African ancestry, they are up-to-speed on the issues and the challenges facing the world. They understand that this victory is also for them and their people back in West Africa, and someday I fully expect to see them use this experience together with our many conversations about politics and world issues to bring a needed and lasting change to their own county. I am certain they will have an impact on helping to bring good governance to Togo someday. “This is your victory too, this is your time.”

Election Day +1: From Africa to Europe and America
Finishing the day with family and friends

I finished Election Day+ 1 together with a small group of American friends and our partners. We met that evening for dinner and drinks at our favorite American-style restaurant and bar. The owners are two Germans who have lived many years in California, a husband-wife team that was split right down the middle on who was the best candidate for President of the United States. Angela won of course, Chuck was crying in his beer back in Los Angeles, California.

We had a very enjoyable evening together with lots of laughs and jokes about how we each handled the enormous stress of this long campaign, and plenty of advice for the new president-elect about how to handle that snake pit called Washington D.C. and what he needs to do to help move the world forward in the right direction.

Here is my small bit of advice for the new President-elect of the United States:
Get some rest Mr. President, you are tired and you have earned a good rest. You will need all the energy and expert advice and wisdom you can assemble soon enough. For now, just rest as much as you can and reflect upon this great victory.

Coming blog posts: ‘Ein Postcard an der US Präsident’ series:
A roundup of viewpoints and analysis from Europe and Africa on the US election victory and the transition of power. Commentary about the historical implications of the US elections from leading historians and experts on politics and world affairs.


Related news articles from Germany about the 2008 US Elections

ZDF TV Network (Germany), ZDF Mediathek (online media archive)
ZDF Mediathek: US Wahl 2008 (US Elections 2008 - full coverage)
http://www.zdf.de/ZDFmediathek/
http://www.zdf.de/ZDFmediathek/content/627174

Obamas Schnappschüsse von der Wahlnacht
Video reports, election coverage and photos of the Obama family on election night

Die Deutschen: Ein Jahrtausend deutsche Geschicte (full program notes)
ZDF Mediathek: Ein Jahrtausend deutsche Geschicte (video series)
Special 10-part TV series on German history starting on 10/24/08
Note: The 'Die Deutschen' series doesn't have anything to do with the 2008 US elections. It is a tip to my readers regarding a ZDF History TV series covering a thousand years of German history with contributions by some leading historians on the subject . (German language)


Spiegel Online - International edition
Special feature: America Has Made Its Choice
(An archive of 2008 US elections news and editorials)

Interview with British Historian Niall Ferguson on Obama and the Global Crisis: 'A World War without War', 11/11/08
The World President: Great Expectations for Project Obama, 11/11/08
What the President-Elect Wants from Germany: Obama Win Sparks Hopes and Fears, 11/10/08
Obama's Triumph: A Radical Cry for Change, 11/05/08
Interview with Obama’s Germany Advisor William Drozdiak: ‘The US is actually serious about ending unilateralism’, 11/10/08

Could It Happen Here? Where’s Europe’s Obama? 11/06/08
‘One of Us’: Africa has high hopes for Barack Obama, 11/07/08
Good Morning Mr. President: What Europe Wants from Obama, 11/05/08

Interview with Neoconservative Scholar Robert Kagan: ‘America Remains Number One’, 10/27/08 – a special report on John McCain’s foreign policy advisor
America’s New Agenda: How the US can fix its damaged reputation abroad by Strobe Talbott, 10/13/08 (IP Global – German Council on Foreign Relations)
Rise of the Rest: The challenges of the new world order by Wolfgang Nowak, 10/02/08 (IP Global - German Council on Foreign Relations)
The End of Arrogance: America loses its dominant economic role, 09/30/08 (a 5-part feature article)

Gabor Steingart’s West Wing (a weekly column about US politics)
Obama's Historic Election Victory: The Resurrection of the American Dream, 11/05/08
West Wing: America, where it pays to fail, 09/30/08

Der Spiegel's report on the Transatlantic Trends Survey 2008:
Europeans back Obama but not necessarily his policies, 09/10/08
Transatlantic relations archive
Special feature: US Election 2008

DW World - Deutsche Welle Online 2008 US Elections coverage
Europe Hails Obama Win, Calls for “New Deal”, 11/05/08
European Press Review: Welcome, Barack Obama, 11/05/08
Opinion: World Hopes for New Beginning by Peter Phillip, 11/04/08


Technorati tags:2008 US Elections US Elections politics Barack Obama Obama America USA history American history African American history African-American history Africa Europe Middle East global voices

African History in Europe: "What Color is Your Valentine?" re-visited

Meeting of Saint Erasmus of Formiae and Saint Maurice
by Matthias Grünewald (1517-23)

One year ago today, on Valentine’s Day 2007, an historian and university professor living in the southern U.S. and who writes under the pseudonym ‘Aphra Behn’ published an excellent essay about Africans in European history. I discovered her article, “What Color is Your Valentine?” a few weeks after publication and referenced it in a post on a similar subject that I published to Jewels in March 2007. I had the honor of a visit to my blog by Aphra Behn when she stopped by to read my post and leave a comment.

Unfortunately I cannot find recent articles by Aphra Behn published to either the Daily Kos or the Progressive Historians. If she is no longer writing for the blogosphere that would be a sad loss for many of her fans as she helped to make important themes in history both fun and interesting for thousands of readers. So if you are reading this Aphra, please let us know where we can find you online and read your latest work about history.

The original article “What Color is Your Valentine?” is still available at the Daily Kos blog, one of the Top 100-ranked blogs in the world. I highly recommend that you read the original version of Aphra’s wonderful essay with accompanying graphics and links in order to enjoy the full impact of the author’s work. You can find other great articles by Aphra Behn published to the Daily Kos by visiting her archives: Aphra Behn’s Diary at dKos.

For the past 3 weeks a small group of blog authors and friends living in various parts of Europe (Germany, Sweden, Denmark, and the UK) have been quietly organizing an online workgroup for collaboration on themes in black and African History in Europe. At present our group consists of seven people and we are working together on the composition and publishing of essays, commentaries on books and book reviews and academic studies, and sharing our research sources with readers in an attempt to help raise interest and global awareness about this important but long neglected field of study. This is an effort by a multi-national group of people who are truly interested in history and literature. Two members of the group are very qualified in the field of history and education.

This initiative is the follow-up to a project for black and African history in Europe launched in February/March 2007 at Jewels in the Jungle and the Atlantic Review. We should be ready for publication of new work next week and plan to continue publishing articles on the subject throughout March 2008.

Below are the opening paragraphs from Aphra Behn’s original article. I wanted to once again draw my readers’ attention to her fine work, especially on the date when people around the world are celebrating Valentines Day, and in recognition of the month of February when people in the USA and Canada celebrate the rich heritage and legacy of their citizens of color, Black History Month. I will add additional links to external online resources at a later date in order to help clarify some of the historical names and places.


What Color is Your Valentine? Black History at dKos
by aphra behn
Wed Feb 14, 2007 at 10:45:43 AM PST

St. Valentine (depending on whom you ask) was a priest. No, he was a bishop. No he was an African martyr.... An African martyr? Ahhh, listen to the wingnut heads explode as we consider the possibility that good old St. Valentine (patron of a thousands trysts!) might not have been a blue-eyed blonde-haired European, but a Berber, a Semite, or an Ethiopian.

This Saint Valentine lived in the multi-ethnic, multi-colored world of later Imperial Rome, where Africans played key roles in the development of "Western" Civilization. Whether it’s founding monasticism, writing literature, developing theology, or sitting on the Imperial Throne of Rome itself, Africans were everywhere in this world. Join me for a joint Valentine's Day-Black History Month special, as we try to re-imagine the world of Saint Valentine...in all its colors.


The World of St. Valentine

Of the three men known as "Saint Valentine," the African martyr is the least well known; no romantic associations are attached to his legend, and beyond his martyrdom in what is now North Africa around the year 270, little is recorded of his life. In that year, Roman rule encompassed many provinces across the northern band of the continent, stretching from Egypt to modern-day Morocco.

In the previous centuries, northern Africa had seen waves of colonization by Semitic-speaking Phoenicians (Carthage), Greek-speaking Macedonian and Hellenes (in Libya and Egypt). These newcomers mixed with the native inhabitants, dubbed "Berbers" by the Greeks. It wasn't a compliment; the term is related to the term "barbarian" as a derogatory name for non-Greek speakers: people whose language was nonsense–"berberberberber," the approximate equivalent of "blablahblah." Today their descendents prefer "Amazigh" or "Imazighen," "free men."

By the time of St. Valentine, the entire province had come under Roman jurisdiction, adding Latins and the other peoples of the Roman Empire to the mix. Roman African consisted of several different provinces. Throw in extensive trading links to Nubia (Kush) and Ethiopia, and we can imagine those provinces as an ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse mix of peoples, languages, and goods. Kushite mercenaries mixed with Romanized Amazigh merchants, Egyptian priests of Isis, and Greek-speaking Latin administrators in the cities of Alexandria and other cities. From these provinces, Rome was well-supplied with grains, figs, grapes, beans, marble, pottery, olives, textiles, and papyrus.

Philosophers and Emperors

Ideas, religions, and philosophies flowed in and out along with the trade goods. Part of the wider Hellenistic (Greek) world, Alexandria in particular attracted many noted philosophers and produced its own. The Jewish philosopher Philo, who lived in Alexandria around 40 CE, worked to reconcile Jewish teaching with Greek philosophy. The Athenian philosopher Antiochus of Askalon eventually settled in Alexandria, and taught a number of pupils, including Arius Didymus. Didymus, a Stoic thinker, was a friend of Emperor Octavian (Augustus); allegedly their friendship helped save Alexandria from destruction as he battled Mark Antony for control of Egypt and Rome.

Did I say friends of emperors? How about Africa as the source of emperors? In CE 193, Libyan native Lucius Severus was proclaimed emperor by his troops. Although not born into the Senatorial class, he had been made a senator by Marcus Aurelius in 172, and had made a name for himself in the army. His rule was rent by wars and financial difficulty, but he also made significant military and legal reforms in the Empire:

Severus brought many changes to the Roman military. Soldiers' pay was increased by half, they were allowed to be married while in service, and greater opportunities were provided for promotion into officer ranks and the civil service. .... The emperor created a new, larger praetorian guard out of provincial soldiers from the legions. Increases were also made to the two other security forces based in Rome: the urban cohorts, who maintained order; and the night watch, who fought fires and dealt with overnight disturbances, break-ins and other petty crime.... The emperor's position as ultimate appeals judge had brought an ever-increasing legal workload to his office. During the second century, a career path for legal experts was established, and an emperor came to rely heavily upon his consilium, an advisory panel of experienced jurists, in rendering decisions. Severus brought these jurists to even greater prominence. A diligent administrator and conscientious judge, the emperor appreciated legal reasoning and nurtured its development. His reign ushered in the golden age of Roman jurisprudence, and his court employed the talents of the three greatest Roman lawyers: Papinian, Paul and Ulpian.—Michael L. Meckler Ohio State University

The First Black Emperor?

Ok, so we've established that Severus was from Africa. Was he "black"? (This is a Black history Month diary, after all.) Frustratingly for modern North Americans, the ancient Romans did not share our view of race. Pre-darwinian in their thinking, they certainly did not categorize inheritable characteristics as 19th century racist theorists did (and as their 21st century counterparts sadly still do.) Recording physical characteristics was less important to the Romans than to us; their lines of "us and them" were drawn more firmly around notions of citizenship than race, "civility" (i.e., Hellenization) than ethnicity.

Linguistics suggest that Severus' family was Phoenician in background; portraiture suggests he may have been darker complected than his wife, who was of Latin descent. It' s probably an exaggeration to call him a "Black " emperor. But it is no exaggeration to say that many of the authors and figures we consider "Roman" were in fact not simply Latinate, but from a wide mix of peoples and "races": Germanic. Amazigh (Berber). Celtic. Egyptian. Macedonian. Germanic. And more...

An Amazigh Author

Take Lucius Apuleius of Madaurus, author of The Golden Ass and other "Roman" works. He was a follower of the Mystery religion of Isis, one of Egypt's great exports to the Hellenic World. The Golden Ass is a funny, often bawdy, yet deeply spiritual account of one initiate's travels through this religion of love, magic, and transformation. He was also the author of several philosophical treatises.

Sometime between 150 and 160, he was accused of practicing malignant magic, entrapping a wealthy older widow into marrying him. His defense, so eloquent that it was preserved, explicitly claimed his own status as a "barbarian" (Berber), and contains this impassioned, unapologetic assertion of his African identity:

About my homeland, it is situated on the border of Numidia and Gaetulia. I am part Numidian and part Gaetulian. I don’t see why I should be ashamed of this...Why did I offer this information? So that from now on, Semelianus, you may be less offended by me, and so that you may extend your good-will and forgiveness, if by some negligence, I did not select your Attic Zarat as my birthplace.

I don't know about you, but when I studied Apuleius' works in school, he was presented to me as "Roman" author, rather than an African one. While not denying that he was part of a wider Latin-speaking community and living in a Roman polity, is it not also significant that this practitioner of an African mystery religion was also proud of his African roots? It’s impossible to say if he would be seen as "black" today; modern Amazigh range in colors from what North Americans call "Black" to what they call "white," thanks to centuries of intermarriage with Europeans, Sub-Saharan Africans, Arabs, and others. But he was not perceived as entirely Roman, and it seems only right to acknowledge that.

Saint Valentine and the African Martyrs

And what about poor St. Valentine? I haven't forgotten him. Frankly, we don't know if he was what we would identify in North America as "black"–nor do we have this information for most of the North African Christians who were later revered as saints. Three early Popes (or Bishops of Rome) hailed from Africa. Pope Saint Victor I, the first of these, was born while the writer Apuleius was still alive, and served as Pope from 186 CE until 197. We know frustratingly little of his life (or complexion), but it's interesting to compare the picture of him drawn by European Christians (Note: see original article at Daily Kos for image) with that of modern American Catholics (found at this link and not reproduced because of copyright—but please go check out this beautiful icon.)

Certainly, as Christianity spread through the empire, it attracted many adherents in Africa–of all of its varied ethnic and linguistic backgrounds. One of the earliest texts written by a Christian woman is from African Carthage–the Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicitas, written in part by Perpetua herself, a 22 year-old-mother awaiting martyrdom along with her heavily pregnant servant, Felicitas. Revered in Christian martyrologies for centuries hence, they were favourite subjects of medieval European martyrologies, often presented as, well, European:

Read more of "What Color is Your Valentine?" at the Daily Kos
Read more about the 3rd Century Christian martyr Saint Maurice, a leader and highly venerated patron saint of the legendary Roman Theban Legion.

Technorati tags:Africa Europe history european history black history black history month global voices

The Slavery Essays - Part I: U.K.'s 200th anniversary of the abolition of the Slave Trade Act 1807

The Slave Market by Gustave Boulanger ca. 1888

The Introduction

I always find it difficult to talk or write about slavery in the New World and the Atlantic World as it has such a powerful legacy in my own country, the United States of America, as well as the whole of the Americas (North and South), and of course my own family. There have been so many myths and lies and half-truths regarding the enslavement of black Africans in the former European colonies of the Americas that it is no wonder that many Americans (North and South) and Europeans and the rest of the world spend their whole lives in ignorance and denial about the grim legacy of the transatlantic slave trade and the impact it has had on all of our respective societies.

I welcome the effort being made by the U.K. to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the Slave Trade Act (1807) as it helps to bring out into the open a public discussion and recognition of the role that various people and entities played in this most despicable of human endeavors AND the commemoration helps to remind us all that the legacy of slavery is still with us in so many ways today, especially when you stop to think that there are more people enslaved today in 2007 than has ever been in human history. In other words, we all have a burden of great shame to bear in regards to the subject of slavery, one of the most ancient and enduring atrocities in the human experience and world history.

So, hats off to U.K. Prime Minister Tony Blair and many others in the U.K. who have put such a great effort into making this 200 anniversary commemoration a memorable event for many of us and to use it as a Call to Action for people everywhere to become more engaged in helping to end modern-day slavery.

One thing that our team project on the history of blacks and Africans in Europe has helped me to understand is that one cannot go through life using tragic events caused by the acts of contemptible personalities in history like a blunt weapon to bludgeon one’s so-called enemies into submission or death. People are going to believe what is comfortable for them to believe and ignore and deny everything else, no matter how much truth another opinion or indisputable factual evidence you present, everything else will be rejected___ oft times violently rejected as we clearly see everyday on our televisions and read about in the press. History, religion, literature, and the media (news, entertainment) has been so abused and misused by people seeking power over others down through the ages to grossly mislead people and pit one idiot group against another that it is absolutely awful.

Slavery and abolition played a pivotal role in the history of my home, Saint Louis, Missouri and the surrounding tri-State region (Kansas, Illinois, Iowa: see Bleeding Kansas era before the American Civil War). Slavery not only affected black Africans but also the indigenous tribes of the region (also see Mississippian culture and Cahokia) and the European settlers who entered this frontier around 1699 in search of land and gold and animal furs; escaping the misery that they had left behind in Europe. If my African-American ancestors who had arrived at the confluence of the great Mississippi and Missouri rivers in 1790 had decided to crossover to the Missouri side and settle in the bustling frontier outposts of what would later become Saint Louis, they probably would have lost their hard won freedom. I presume that they were freed from bondage shortly before or after the American Revolutionary War with England, 1775-1783.

Note: Although the early history of European presence in the area starts with the expeditions of Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette (1673), the first settlement at what is today Saint Louis, MO. didn’t begin until almost 100 years later with the arrival of Pierre Laclède and his 13-year old stepson René Auguste Chouteau and a group of 30 men in 1763. These territories were actually controlled by the Spanish royal court (a particularly brutal and murderous government for black African slaves in the colonies) but after the end of the French - Indian War (1754-1763) and the 1763 Treaty of Paris that gave all lands east of the Mississippi river to England the small settlement of Saint Louis began to grow rapidly. By the time my early American ancestors showed up in the area the settlement of St. Louis had grown to the enormous size of approximately 1000 people. Massive!

Napoléan Bonaparte, who worked out a deal with President Thomas Jefferson and the U.S. government administration of 1801 to purchase the vast Louisiana Territory had re-introduced black slavery into the French colonies and territories in 1803. For more on the history of St. Louis click here and here ( also see: history and heritage of Missouri including St. Louis).

As a young man growing up in St. Louis, Missouri I had the privilege to know and be close friends with an old southern couple, Mr. and Mrs. Wofford, who hailed from the great State of Mississippi. Mr. Wofford had worked as a black sharecropper (a farmer without land) in rural Mississippi if I remember correctly, and he and his wife would spend hours talking with their lovely grand daughter and me about life in the early 20th Century rural South. We affectionately addressed them as “Big Mama” and “Big Papa”, an expression used by many people of the southern United States of that time to describe a grandparent. Big Mama was a very pretty petite woman and Big Papa was a strapping, strong man of about six feet (1.85 meters) in height.

I can clearly picture Big Mama rocking back and forth in her favorite chair on their front porch (veranda) during a warm summer evening while enjoying a chew of tobacco or pinch of snuff discreetly lodged in her cheek explaining to us “citified youngsters” what slavery and post-Civil War America was like for black folks and white folks alike. She recalled stories that had been handed down to them from their own grandparents and relatives and older friends, many who had labored the great majority of their lives as slaves in America’s Deep South. I learned everything I needed to know about “slavery and forgiveness” from these two beautiful people who helped to shape my own life in such a powerful way. Of course I have learned even more about the horrible institution of human slavery since my youth, and although I have been able to improve and expand my knowledge on Big Mama’s lessons about slavery, I struggle to this very day with the “forgiveness” part. Can’t do it, forgive whom? They all dead, those who dunnit, aren’t they? Non?

So, I’ve come up with a few brief essays for the 200th Anniversary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in the U.K. and I am dedicating this humble effort to the memory of Mr. and Mrs. Wofford, who have both passed away from us. Big Mama would be tinkled pink that the British are struggling to come to terms with this terrible legacy in their history, and I can imagine that she would be mighty proud that her “adopted grandson” would speak out with a message from the Colonies. Big Mama’s own message for the citizens of the United Kingdom and the world would be quite simple and to the point:

“Look into the mirror of your history and face up to the Truth, then get on with your lives and make sure you don’t behave as bad as those lost souls who came before you.”

The “Jewels in the Jungle” Essay on Slavery – Part I

It has not escaped my attention while researching information necessary to compose the articles and posts for our Black History in Europe project that slavery has played a key role in the lives of Africans and Europeans alike for hundreds of years. Dr. Kate Lowe, co-editor with T.F. Earle of Black Africans in Renaissance Europe (Cambridge, 2005) has eloquently written about the complexity of problems surrounding this sad legacy of European history in the introduction to her book. There were many, many people involved from several nations, races and religions. Attempting to place blame on any one race of people or nation would be a terrible mistake in my opinion and an injustice to all the people who have suffered under the misery of human enslavement down through the ages. This scourge of human suffering has been with us for several millennia and practically all human beings have been affected by slavery in some way or another. Slavery is not a black & white thing and it never was… it has affected humans on the Earth from the time that our first ancestors raided neighboring villages in war and conflict and enslaved the survivors who were probably women and children. We are talking about 10’s of thousands of years ago (see National Geographic magazine’s special feature The Human Journey, Human Origins March 2006 issue). Slavery has been around for a very long time!

The glorious empires of the Antiquity, those of the Eastern world and the Middle East, of Africa (Nubia and Kush, Egypt, Ethiopia and the Land of Punt, Mali and the kingdoms of the Sahel, the Kingdom of Kongo, Great Zimbabwe), the Western world with the Greek and Roman empires and the ancient peoples of the Americas, all of these great periods in human history were overshadowed by the brutal and inhuman practice of slavery.

That’s why it was so strange for me to see in a BBC News article a photo of U.K. Prime Minister Tony Blair apologizing to the President of Ghana, John Kufuor, for Britain’s role in the transatlantic slave trade. That’s why it was so confusing to hear the newly elected Archbishop of York, Dr. John Sentamu, himself an African by birth, demanding that the U.K. Government make a clear and formal apology for slavery. Should it not be that the governments of Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Niger, Mali, Congo, Tanzania, Morocco, Algeria, Mauritania, Libya, Egypt, Sudan, and many other African nations also be making an apology to the descendents of the transatlantic and the trans-Sahara and trans-Sahel and Indian Ocean and Arab slave trades? I mean let’s make this an equal opportunity deal here and not leave any nation out that was deeply, deeply involved.

The Ashanti kings of the Gold Coast of West Africa and kings and rulers of several African countries (Saharan and sub-Saharan) did not stop the wicked trade of human beings for sale to Europeans and Arabs until the beginning of the 20th Century. Hell, the trade in slaves from Africa has never stopped and continues right up to this very day! So let’s lighten up on demands for apologies because the way I see it, everybody is guilty in some way or another. If you need an apology from someone, go look into the mirror and pray, “Lord, I sure am sorry for (conciously or unconsciously) supporting and/or ignoring modern-day slavery”.

I know that some folks reading this will feel insulted and that’s fine. Be insulted. You should be insulted especially if you can’t accept that the few facts listed below are just the “tip of the iceberg” in regards to Africa’s own involvement in the peculiar institution of human slavery

Source: The Story of Africa – Slavery - BBC World Service website and radio program. A history of the continent from an African perspective (authored by African writers and historians).

Growing Rich with Slavery

Royalty

In the early 18th century, Kings of Dahomey (known today as Benin) became big players in the slave trade, waging a bitter war on their neighbours, resulting in the capture of 10,000 [slaves], including another important slave trader, the King of Whydah. King Tegbesu made £250,000 a year selling people into slavery in 1750. King Gezo said in the 1840's he would do anything the British wanted him to do apart from giving up slave trade:

"The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of their wealth…the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery…"

LIVING WITNESS
Some of the descendants of African traders are alive today. Mohammed Ibrahim Babatu is the great great grandson of Baba-ato (also known as Babatu), the famous Muslim slave trader, who was born in Niger and conducted his slave raids in Northern Ghana in the 1880's. Mohammed Ibrahim Babatu, the deputy head teacher of a Junior secondary school in Yendi, lives in Ghana.

"In our curriculum, we teach a little part of the history of our land. Because some of the children ask questions about the past history of our grandfather Babatu.

Babatu, and others, didn't see anything wrong with slavery. They didn't have any knowledge of what the people were used for. They were only aware that some of the slaves would serve others of the royal families within the sub-region.

He has done a great deal of harm to the people of Africa. I have studied history and I know the effect of slavery.

I have seen that the slave raids did harm to Africa, but some members of our family feel he was ignorant…we feel that what he did was fine, because it has given the family a great fame within the Dagomba society.

He gave some of the slaves to the Dagombas and then he sent the rest of the slaves to the Salaga market. He didn't know they were going to plantations…he was ignorant…"

SONGHAY
The young Moroccan traveler and commentator, Leo Africanus, was amazed at the wealth and quantity of slaves to be found in Gao, the capital of Songhay [Songhay empire], which he visited in 1510 and 1513 when the empire was at the height of its power under Askiya Mohammed.

"...here there is a certain place where slaves are sold, especially on those days when the merchants are assembled. And a young slave of fifteen years of age is sold for six ducats, and children are also sold. The king of this region has a certain private palace where he maintains a great number of concubines and slaves."

SWAHILI
The ruling class of coastal Swahili society - Sultans, government officials and wealthy merchants - used non-Muslim slaves as domestic servants and to work on farms and estates. The craftsmen, artisans and clerks tended to be Muslim and freed men. But the divisions between the different classes were often very flexible. The powerful slave and ivory trader Tippu Tip was the grandson of a slave.

The Omani Sultan, Seyyid Said, became immensely rich when he started up cloves plantations in 1820 with slave labour - so successful was he that he moved the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1840.

Note: see additional information about the Omani African slave trade on Zanzibar below

PUNISHED FOR KEEPING SLAVES
The Asanti (the capital, Kumasi, is in modern Ghana) had a long tradition of domestic slavery. But gold was the main commodity for selling. With the arrival of Europeans the slaves displaced gold as the main commodity for trade. As late as 1895 the British Colonial Office was not concerned by this.

"It would be a mistake to frighten the King of Kumasi and the Ashantis generally on the question of slavery. We cannot sweep away their customs and institutions all at once. Domestic slavery should not be troubled at present."

British attitudes changed when the King of the Asanti (the Asantehene) resisted British colonial authority. The suppression of the slave trade became a justification for the extension of European power. With the humiliation and exile of King Prempeh I in 1896, the Asanti were placed under the authority of the Governor of the Gold Coast and forced therefore to conform to British law and abolish the slave trade.

SLAVERY DECREED BY THE GODS
In 1807, Britain declared all slave trading illegal. The king of Bonny (in what is now the Nigerian delta) was dismayed at the conclusion of the practice.

"We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself."

End of BBC World Service Story of Africa excerpt

Source: HMS Surprise – documents and diary of the 19th Century British Royal Navy surgeon William Loney by Peter Davies

Excerpts from the Frere Mission to Zanzibar (1872)

Early history of Zanzibar

Round 1500 Portugal gained control of Zanzibar and most of the East African coast. In 1698 Arabs from Oman ousted the Portuguese. In 1792 Britain signed a treaty with the Sultan of Muscat providing British protection for Zanzibar in exchange for Omani support against any French thrust via Oman towards India. So started a gradual British involvement in Zanzibar affairs.

The Omani arabs only started to take a serious interest in Zanzibar, when Sayyid ("Lord") Said, Sultan of Muscat since 1804 (family tree), encouraged merchants to trade with, or move to, the island, and to expand into mainland Africa. In 1840 he moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, where he presided over a flourishing trading empire….

The Zanzibar slave trade

The slave trade from Zanzibar had started soon after the Arab conquest, initially for the date plantations in Arabia. Although slaves were also supplied to Persian and India, it was the establishment of sugar and clove plantations in Mauritius and Reunion in the 18th century which led to the greatest development of the trade.

In 1811, just four years after Britain had abolished slavery, Said opened the Great Slave Market in Zanzibar; a year later he introduced cloves to the island, generating a significant need for slaves on the island itself. In 1822, the Sultan's dependence on British naval strength allowed Governor Sir Robert Townsend Farquhar of Mauritius (which under French rule had been a primary destination of slavers from Zanzibar) to send Captain Fairfax Moresby, senior officer at that island, in the Menai to conclude a treaty limiting the slave traffic to the Sultans own (East African and Arabic) dominions, and forbidding any trade of slaves to Christians. A later treaty, effective from 1847, and negotiated in 1845 by Colonel Atkins Hammerton (appointed as the first British Consul at Zanzibar in 1841) further limited - in theory - the traffic from Zanzibar to the Sultan's African dominions between Lamu in the north and Kilwa in the south.

Prevention of incursion by other European powers was the initial reason for a British naval presence on the East African coast. To this were later added protection of British traders, and suppression of the slave trade. This last factor only became prominent round 1860, when the Foreign Office requesting a ship permanently on the station for that purpose. Lack of knowledge about the trade, and a desire not to offend Britain's ally, the Sultan, were responsible for the later development of the anti-slavery issue on the East coast than on the West coast. The explorations of David Livingstone, Richard Burton and John Speke increased the interest of the British public in the area.

The small number of British cruisers on the station, and the fact that large numbers of comparatively small dhows were involved in the slave trade, meant that much of the navy's patrol work had to be done in ships boats, often working independently for days on end.

Poor communications with home, and lack of explicit instructions from the Admiralty, meant that the ship's commanders had to decide how to proceed in individual cases; destruction of captured dhows on the spot was often considered to be the only viable alternative. Protest against this procedure led in 1869 to the giving of full powers of adjudication to the Vice-Admiralty Court at Zanzibar (established in 1866, then only for slavers captured within the Sultans dominions), to which all captures had then to be taken, and to "clarification" of the general instructions to the commanders on the station (often irrelevant, being based on those for the West African station), which in fact only made them more unclear. These aspects, together with the small number of ships on the station (generally not more than two; see for example Cumming's report for 1872) meant that the navy's impact on the slave trade was minimal.

End excerpts from the HMS Surprise – Frere Mission to Zanzibar

My good friend Reza, an Iranian exile who has lived here in Germany for almost 30 years and I have been discussing this Black History in Europe project for weeks now with great fervor and interest and excitement. Reza often reminds me as he describes the ancient history of his own beloved country Iran that it was the famous Persian king Cyrus II (ca. 576-530 BC) of the Achaemenid Empire (559– 330 BC) that first forbid slavery in his empire, making him one of the first slavery abolitionists in history.

I can hear my friend Reza now as I write this article, “Kurush (Cyrus), my King, said to all of the people of ancient Persia:
“In my land there will be no slavery, slavery is verboten! All people are welcome in my kingdom. All religions are welcome in my kingdom, for I am Kurush the Great, the king of kings.””

An excerpt from Wikipedia about Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great):

During his reign, Cyrus maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved partly through retaining and expanding Median satrapies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by vassal kings called satraps, was continued by Cyrus' successor Darius the Great. Cyrus' empire demanded only tribute and conscripts from many parts of the realm.

Cyrus' conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast superstate, comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading Seleucid dynasty during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Persian Parthians and Sassanids.

In 1992, he was ranked #87 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. On December 10, 2003, in her acceptance of the Nobel Peace Prize, Shirin Ebadi evoked Cyrus, saying:

I am an Iranian, a descendant of Cyrus the Great. This emperor proclaimed at the pinnacle of power 2,500 years ago that he 'would not reign over the people if they did not wish it.' He promised not to force any person to change his religion and faith and guaranteed freedom for all. The Charter of Cyrus the Great should be studied in the history of human rights.

End excerpts from Wikipedia on Cyrus the Great

The Slavery Essays - Part II coming soon


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